Lexique roman; Fin, Fi - Fisac

Fin, Fi, adj., goth. fyn, fin, pur, fidèle, sûr.

Voyez Mayans, p. 224; et Denina, t. III, p. 23 et 134.

Fis com fins argens.

Bertrand de Born: Ges no mi.

Fin comme fin argent. 

Fig. Si tas obras no so finas.

(chap. Si les teues obres no són pures.)

P. Cardinal: Jhesum Crist. 

Si tes œuvres ne sont pures.

Aissi quo vos m'es fis, vos suy ieu fina. 

G. Riquier: L'autr' ier. 

Ainsi comme vous m' êtes fidèle, je vous suis fidèle. 

Negus era fis de sa vida. Philomena. 

Nul n'était sur de sa vie.

Subst. Per qu' els fis van ves las finas duptan. 

B. Tortis: Per ensenhar. 

Par quoi les purs vont vers les pures en doutant. 

ANC. FR. De Tristan et de la reine,

De lur amur qui tant fu fine.

Marie de France, t. I, p. 388. 

Ke mes fins cuers vous fist tant à moi plaire. 

Le Roi de Navarre, chanson XIV. 

Sur la fine pointe du jour.

Comines, liv. I, p. 57. 

Il donne

Au fin premier qui la demandera.

Clément Marot, t. III, p. 20.

CAT. Fí. ESP. PORT. IT. Fino. (chap. Fi, pur o puro, fiel, segú.)

2. Fineza, s. f., pureté.

Aissi sui fis com fis aurs a fineza

Sobr' els autres metals.

(chap. Aixina soc puro com lo pur' or té puresa (finura) sobre los atres metals.)

J. Estève de Béziers: Aissi com.

Ainsi je suis pur comme pur or a pureté sur les autres métaux.

CAT. Finesa. ESP. PORT. Fineza. IT. Finezza. (chap. Finura, puresa.)

3. Finamen, adv., purement, fidèlement.

Aissi com ieu l'am finamen.

(chap. Així com yo la vull fielmen, puramen.)

B. de Ventadour: Non es.

Ainsi comme je l'aime fidèlement.

ANC. CAT. Finamen. ESP. PORT. IT. Finamente. (chap. Finamen, en lo sentit de fielmen, puramen.) 

4. Afinador, s. m., affineur.

Afinadors d'argen.

(chap. Afinadós d'argén o plata. Los que fan la plata fina, mes pura.) 

Cartulaire de Montpellier, fol. 45.

Affineurs d'argent.

CAT. ESP. Afinador. PORT. Affinador. IT. Affinatore. (chap. Afinadó, afinadós, afinadora, afinadores.)

5. Afinar, Affinar, v., épurer, affiner, aiguiser.

Ja no 'l cuid' afinar

En un mol sembeli.

Giraud de Borneil: Leu chansoneta. Var.

Jamais ne le pense aiguiser sur une molle fourrure.

On totz prims aips volc natur' afinar.

B. Zorgi: Puois ieu. 

Où nature voulut épurer toutes délicates qualités.

En lieis s' afina beutatz, 

Cum l' aurs en l'arden carbo.

P. Vidal: De chantar.

En elle s'épure beauté, comme l'or en l'ardent charbon.

Fig. Saber un chant primamenz afinar. 

B. Zorgi: Puois ieu. 

Savoir aiguiser subtilement un chant. 

El mon non a 

Doctor qui tant prim ni plus plan 

Lo planes, 

Ni mielh l' afines.

Giraud de Borneil: Ara si. 

Au monde il n'y a docteur qui si délicatement ni plus planement le polit, ni l'affinât mieux. 

Part. pas. De fer o de metall affinats.

Tit. de 1422. DOAT, t. LXXIII, fol. 142.

De fer ou de métal affinés.

Aissi 'lh for' afinatz,

Ves lieys, cum l'aurs s'afin' en la fornatz.

G. Faidit: Chant e deport.

Ainsi je lui serais épuré, envers elle, comme l'or s'épure en la fournaise.

- Tromper avec finesse.

Los volguessen decebre ni afinar.

Chronique des Albigeois, col. 18.

Les voulussent décevoir et tromper.

ANC. FR. Et par chascun piet du cheval un marc d'or affiné.

Roman français de Fierabras, liv. II, part. 2, ch. 7.

Il se délibéra d'affiner son ennemy par une telle ruze... Quand il fut affiné et abusé par la ruze des boeufs de Hannibal.

Amyot, Trad. de Plutarque, V. de Fabius Maximus.

(N. E. “la ruze des boeufs de Hannibal” se refiere a la estratagema de Aníbal: poner teas ardiendo en los cuernos de los bueyes : toro embolado. Muchos siglos antes del Torico de Teruel.)

Qui soubs beaux dits un vrai amant affine.

Clément Marot, t. 1, p. 362.

Le diable ne m'affineroit pas.

(chap. Lo diable no m' engañará, engatussará, me fotrá lo pel; y menos lo diable de La Portellada “cacholet”.) 

Rabelais, liv. II, ch. 24.

CAT. ESP. Afinar. PORT. Affinar. IT. Affinare.

6. Raysfinar, v., raffiner.

Enquera m vay raysfinan

Lo mal d' amor c' avi' antan.

P. Raimond de Toulouse: Enquera. Var.

Encore va en me raffinant le mal d'amour que j'avais antan.

CAT. ESP. (refinar) PORT. Rafinar. IT. Raffinare. (chap. Refiná, fé fi.)

7. Finansa, s. f., finance, argent.

Sa fes non es ferma ses finansa.

Hugues de S.-Cyr: Tant es de. 

Sa foi n'est ferme sans finance.

Demandar d'un presonier finansa d'aur e d'argen.

L'Arbre de Batalhas, fol. 138.

Demander d'un prisonnier finance d'or et d'argent.

Paguar, per la finansa, rempsson e delivransa de lors corps.

Tit. de 1384. Arch. du Roy., K. 52.

Payer, par la finance, rançon et délivrance de leurs corps.

IT. Finanze. (chap. Finansa, finanses. ESP. Finanza, finanzas.)

Finelha, Finela, Finella, s. f., boucle.

Finelha ses ardalho.

Le Moine de Montaudon: Mot m' enueia.

Boucle sans ardillon.

Cenh una correga de seda de baudrat;

La finela fon rica de fin aur emerat.

Roman de Fierabras, v. 2029.

Ceint une ceinture de soie de baudrier; la boucle fut riche de pur or affiné.

E 'n espero finela,

E bloca en escut.

Arnaud de Marsan: Qui comte.

Et en éperon boucle, et bosse en écu.

Loc. Ges non ai en coratge

Que ieu n' embles lo pretz d'una finella.

P. Cardinal: Un sirventes trametray.

Je n'ai point en coeur que j'en volasse le prix d'une boucle.

(N. E. chap. Hebilla, hebilles. ESP. Hebilla, fíbula, broche, corchete, prendedor, pasador. Del lat. vulgar fibella, dim. de fibŭla. Finelha, finela, finella VS fibella, se aprecia el cambio de b a n.)

Fiola, s. f., lat. phiala, fiole, flacon.

Coma una fiola de veire que urta a la peira. Liv. de Sydrac, fol. 44.

(chap. Com una botella de vidre que pegue contra la pedra. La paraula ampolla s'apareix mes al phiala en latín, fiola en ocsitá, fiala en italiá, y a una ánfora, amphora. Ampolla encara la fem aná cuan mos referim a les que porten alguna medissina, ampolletes; les bufes que te ixen a la pell tamé són ampolles.)

Comme une fiole de verre qui heurte contre la pierre.

IT. Fiala.

Fisac, s. m., pistache. (N. E. Pistacia vera.)

Semblantz scorsas de fisacs.

Trad. d'Albucasis, fol. 27.

Ressemblant écorces de pistaches.

PORT. Fistico.

(N. E. El DCVB no lo tiene al día de hoy, 6.3.24, igual les ha dado por escribir “pistatxo”, son así de gilipollas estos alucinados.
En Cataluña está en auge este fruto seco.

Aparece como apellido 2 veces en Google; pistache sale millones de veces; el portugués “fistico” es difícil de seguir.

Chap. Pistacho, pistachos. ESP. Pistacho, pistachos.

La mayoría se cultiva en California e Irán.)

fonoll, fenoll, cenollo, cenojo

fonoll, fonolls, fenoll, fenolls, fenollo, cenojo, cenollo, faeniculum vulgare, fenŭcŭlu – valensiá fenoll de rabosa, fenolléz, fenoll minjat com a verdura, cenollet, mon pare sen fée moltes vegades escaldat en oli de oliva, la part de damún de terra, lo fonoll silvestre a Beseit no té casi o gens de bulbo.

hinojo, hinojos - La lengua valenciana muestra su raíz mozárabe en nombres botánicos como 'fenoll de rabosa', pues 'rabosa' (cat. guineu) sería “herencia mozárabe” (DECLLC, VII, p.24). Por cierto, el val. 'fenoll' es fiel al étimo latino fenŭcŭlu, no la corrupción catalana 'fonoll' que los colaboracionistas de la AVL han incluido en el Dicc. Normatiu Valencià. Colmeiro muestra la grafía correcta: “val. fenoll de rabosa” (p.61)

https://dcvb.iec.cat/PopUpImage.asp?img=Imagefiles/b5fp958a.gif

DCVB :
|| 1.   Planta umbel·lífera de l'espècie Foeniculum officinale, que es fa fins a 1'50 m. d'alçada, té el tronc dret, estriat i ramós, les fulles molt dividides en lacínies nombroses, filiformes i llargues; umbel·les de 15 a 20 radis sense involucre, flors grogues i fruit oblong; és planta aromàtica, freqüent en els camps i vinyets (pir-or., or., occ., val., bal.); cast. hinojo. Sia-li donada aquesta aiuda feta de segó, malues e fenoll,Alcanyís Reg. pest. 20. Que úsia sovint del such del fonoll, Agustí Secr. 11. Els papallons revolen entre els fonolls del cementeri, Bertrana Herois 7. 

|| 2. Nom genèric de diferents plantes que es distingeixen pels següents noms específics: 
a)  Fonoll marí: l'espècie Crithmum maritimum, de tronc gruixut, flexuós, de 10 a 30 cm., fulles carnoses amb segments linears-allançats, flors blanques verdoses en umbel·les de 15 a 20 radis angulosos; és aromàtica i abunda per totes les voreres de mar (or., val., bal.); cast. hinojo marino. Altra ampolla ab una liura mija de fenoll marí, doc. a. 1409 (Arx. Gral. R. Val.). Poden conduyr fonolls, fonolls marins, espàrechs, Agustí Secr. 133.

b)  Fonoll marí: l'espècie Inula crithmoides, de fulles carnoses, verdes, lineals, i flors grogues o vermelloses; es fa a maresmes i llocs salobrencs; cast. romero marino.

c) Fonoll pudent: l'espècie Anethum graveolens; cast. eneldo. (V. anet, art. 1).
d) Fonoll de bou: l'espècie Conium maculatum; cast. cicuta, perejil lobuno. (V. fonollassa).—
e) Fonoll de la Reina: el Mesembryanthemum tenuifolium, de fulles primes i volubles, que es conra en els jardins (Mall.).
f) Fonoll de prat: l'espècie Carum carvi, de 30 a 60 cm. d'alçada, de fulles bipinnades, dividides, umbel·les de vuit a setze radis desiguals, flors blanques (Cat., Val.); cast. alcaravea. (V. comí).
g) Fonoll d'aigua: l'espècie Phellandrium aquaticum (Val.).
h) Fonoll d'ovella: planta de 40 a 60 cm. d'alçada, de fulles semblants a les del fonoll comú, flor com un confitet, i d'aplicacions medicinals (Mall.).—

i) Fonoll grec: fenigrec (Men.). Vintiuna mota | de fonoi grec, codolada menorquina (ap. Camps Folkl. i, 174). 

|| 2. m. i f. Betzol, poc-seny (Mall.); cast. zopenco, bobalicón. «Hala, no sies fonoi!»«Aquesta al·lota és una fonoi». 

|| 3. Fonoll!: interj., variant eufèmica de fotre (pir-or., or., occ.). Ola, Pep, quant te fas per any!—Per any? Fonoll!, Bergue Fables 98. Devegades es completa l'exclamació dient fonoll marí!: Fonoy marí! no haver sigut més resolt!, Víct. Cat., Cayres 123.

Fonoll: llin. existent a Cubells, Mieres, Masnou, Barc., Igualada, Espluga de F., Valls, Blancafort, Agramunt, Albesa, Aranyó, etc. En el País Valencià hi ha la variant Fenoll (Atzaneta, Gandia, Dènia, Benejama, Benidorm, Elx, Novelda, El Pinós, Vilajoiosa, etc.).

    Refr.
—«Fonoll i ruda, fan sa vista aguda» (Men.).

    Fon.: funóʎ (Puigcerdá, Prats de Molló, Campmany, Martinet, Berga, Manresa, Granollers, Barc., Tarr., Valls); funóј (Ribes, Ripoll, Olot, Pobla de L., Bagà, Camprodon, Blanes, St. Feliu de G., Sóller, Men.); fonóј (Mall.); fənóʎ (Rosselló, Capcir); fenóʎ (occ., val.); fanóʎ (alg.); fənóј (Blanes, Mall.); funúʎ (Montlluís); funέʎ (Cadaqués); funέј (Cadaqués, Torroella de M., Figueres, Palafrugell, Llofriu, St. Feliu de G.).

    Var. form.: fonell (dialectal empordanès; és curiós d'observar que a l'Empordà hi ha gent que distingeix entre fonoll, que és el fonoll comú, i fonell marí o Crithmum maritimum).

    Var. ort. ant.: fenoyl (Nudr. cura ocels 12); fenoyll (Cauliach Coll., ll. vii, d. 1a, c. 8); fanoll (Flos medic. 169); fanol (Flos medic. 245).
    Etim.: del llatí fenŭcŭlu, mat. sign. || 1. La forma dialectal fonell ve del llatí fenĭcŭlu.

https://es.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foeniculum_vulgare


El hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare) es la única especie del género Foeniculum. Se encuentra distribuida por las zonas templadas de todo el mundo, aunque nativa de la zona meridional de Europa, en especial la costa del mar Mediterráneo, donde crece en estado silvestre. Es una hierba perenne y sumamente aromática, cultivada para su empleo en gastronomía.

Fenellasa,Beceite, Beseit, Fenellassa

soca

SOCA 

trong de un abre

per a asclá una soca nessessitém un mall, tascons

troncho de una col

trong de Nadal de Cataluña, cagatió

|| 1. Rabassa || 1 (Pallars, Urgell, Segarra, Camp de Tarr., Val., Gandia, Bal.); cast. cepa, tocón. Puxen encar fer tea de çocha [sic] et de pinaça,doc. a. 1341 (BABL, xi, 407). No m'haveu treta de soca de roure, Metge Somni iii. Asseguda a la soca d'una alzina, Canigó x. a) Tronxo de col (val.); cast. troncho. Soca, tronch o tronxo de col: Cauliculus, caulis, colis, Torra Dicc.—b) Soca de canya: la part subterrània de la canya, sense les arrels.
|| 2. Tronc de l'arbre (or., occ., bal.); cast. tronco. Lo dols fruyt hix de la soca, Coll. Dames 524. Un pi gegant de dues soques, Costa Agre terra 124.
|| 3. a) Arbre fruiter. «Hi ha trenta soques dins es figueral» (Calvià, Petra).—b) Cep, planta que fa els raïms (Rosselló); cast. cepa.
|| 4. Soca del braç: bíceps (Pego).
|| 5. Soca de l'orella: arrel, la part de l'orella que està agafada a la cara (Tortosa).
|| 6. Soca d'un queixal: l'arrel del queixal (doc. segle XVIII, ap. Aguiló Dicc.).
|| 7. La part més baixa, de forma cilíndrica, del paller o garbera (Cast.).
|| 8. L'extrem oposat a la punta d'una agulla canyissera (Alboraia).
|| 9. Secció de fils amb què es lliguen les passades de basta destinades a formar el pèl del vellut (Pons Ind. text.).
|| 10. Persona o persones més vella d'una família, d'una estirp; cast. cepa. Vós qui sou la soca e rail de tota natura humana, Villena Vita Chr., c. 235. Diuen que ve de bona soca, Aguiló Poes. 187.
|| 11. fig. Persona curta d'enteniment (or., occ.); cast. zoquete.
Soca: llin. existent a Barc., Barberà, etc.
    Loc.
—De soca i arrel o De soca a arrel: en la part més íntima i fonamental. Desfent-se el mur de pedra, de soca a arrel tremola, Atlàntida viii. Amb la sotragada... s'assorollà de soca a rel, Ruyra Parada 4.
    Refr.—a) «A on hi ha soques, hi ha bajoques» (Cast.); «Qui té soques, pot fer estelles» (Men.): significa que el qui té béns immobles, pot pagar el que deu.—b) «Qui estima ses rames, estima ses soques»: vol dir que el qui estima una persona, deu estimar les altres de la mateixa família.
    Fon.: sɔ́kə (pir-or., or.); sɔ́ka (Andorra, Calasseit, Tortosa); sɔ́kɛ (Sort, Tremp, Urgell, Ll., Gandesa); sɔ̞́ka (Cast., Val.); sɔ̞́kɔ̞ (Al.); sɔ̞́сə (Palma, Manacor, Pollença); sɔ̞́kə (Inca, Sóller, Men., Eiv.).
    Intens.:—a) Augm.: socassa, socarra, socarrassa, socarrot.—b) Dim.: soqueta, soquetxa, soquel·la, soqueua, soquiua, socoia, socarrina.—c) Pejor.: socota, socot.
    Etim.: probablement del gàl·lic *tsukka, que correspon al germànic stokk, ‘bastó’, ‘cep’, ‘rabassa’. El mateix origen deu tenir el català soc art. 2 (diferent del soc art. 1, que té un origen llatí).
2. SOCA f.
Sabata alta, de cuiro amb sola de fusta clavetejada, que duen els pastors a l'hivern (Ripollès, Berguedà, Ribagorça, Pallars); cast. zueco. Soca de cuyro: Pero, calceus rusticus e crudo corio, Torra Dicc.
    Fon.: sɔ́kə (or.); sɔ́ka (Bonansa, Vall d'Àneu).
    Etim.: forma femenina de soc, art. 1.

burchasoques
burchá soques

Saïl de Scola, Salh, Sail, Saill. École. Bergerac, Barjarac, Bragairac, Brageirac

Saïl de Scola.

De ben gran joy chantera
S' eu agues razon de que,
Mas d' amor no m lau de re;
Ni blasmar no m n' ausaria,
Tan dopti ma douss' amia:
E doncs, de que chantarai,
Pois mal ni ben non dirai?

Per Crist, non o sai enquera,
Si razos no m n' esdeve,
Que clams non esta ges be;
Lauzar! com m' en lauzaria
S' om lo per que no m fasia?
Dir o puesc eu, mas ben sai
Que nuil pro d' amor non ai.

Anceis m' es esquiv' e fera,
On eu plus li clam merce;
E sai ben per que n' abste
Mos cors, que non di follia:
Que meinz val us ans d' un dia;
Per que m sui mes en assai,
Si ja 'l bon jorn trobarai.

E ja no m' en penedera,
S' amors no fos tan ab me;
E donc, quar no tir mon fre?
Que fols es qui no s chastia;
Oimais, que m castigaria!
Que totz morrai o l' aurai,
Que ja no m' en partirai.

Car a tot dia s' esmera
Cella qui reten ab se;
Et ella, de que m rete
Mas de sa bella paria?
O ill, mas plus en volria,
Non ai pro; e qu' en voill mai,
Pois son bel semblan mi fai?

* eu prec e sainta Maria,

On que Na Biatritz sia
De Narbona, que ill don jai,
E ill cresca son pretz verai.

//

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salh_d%27Escola

Salh d'Escola (fl. 1195) was a troubadour from Bergerac in the Périgord, a former province of France. The meaning of his name, also spelled Sail or Saill, is uncertain; it may be an unusual given name. His surname, likewise, may be a family name, but there is no known location called "Escola" (École, Savoie) that could render it a toponymic. The entire name may be a nickname meaning "defector from school" or "escapee from the cloister",  (salir, salhir : exit, escape) indicating that he quit his education, either in a school or a monastery. On the other hand, it may signify a pedant.

The details of Salh's life are provided in two main sources, one contemporaneous and one late. The first source is the poem "Pos Peire d'Alvernh′ a chantat" composed by the troubadour monk of Montaudon in 1195. In it he good-naturedly criticises a gallery of troubadours, each in turn, usually humorously. One of those criticised is Salh d'Escola. According to the monk, Salh was a jongleur who went to Bergerac and became a merchant. The later source is Salh's vida (a short biography), which probably relied on "Pos Peire d'Alvernh′" to piece together its story. According to the anonymous biographer, Salh was the son of a merchant and became a jongleur. He then went to Narbonne and stayed for a long time at the court of "Ainermada de Narbona", the Viscountess Ermengard of Narbonne. Upon her death (1197), Salh entered the cloister at Bergerac and abandoned his "inventing [songs] and singing".

Only one work by Salh, a canso (love song), has been preserved: "Gran esfortz fai qui chanta ni.s deporta". It is an amorous confession to his lady for telling her to "die" in a moment of desperation or irritation.

Bergerac is spelled Barjarac, Bragairac, or Brageirac in Occitan.

Egan, Margarita, ed. The Vidas of the Troubadours. New York: Garland, 1984. ISBN 0-8240-9437-9.

Riquer, Martín de. Los trovadores: historia literaria y textos. 3 vol. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975.

As vidas dos trovadores Medievais, quem foram esses homens e mulheres que cantaram o amor. Marcella Lopes Guimarães (: Guimerá, como yo)

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_(Savoie)

École est une commune française située dans le département de la Savoie, en région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. La commune fait partie du parc naturel régional des Bauges.

Lieux d'habitation :

Chef-Lieu ;

le Villard ;

Gratteloup; (: Gratallops)

le Jarsin  ;

les Arolles ;

le Creux du Mont ;

Ancien village de Bellevaux détruit durant la dernière guerre.

École est une commune des Bauges Devant. Sa situation géographique fait d'École une commune très prisée des randonneurs.

Les différentes montagnes au départ d'École :

Arclusaz ;

le Pécloz ;

Mont d'Armenaz ;

le Colombier.

Scola, fin du xie siècle, puis Eschola, ca. 1200. Probablement rien à voir avec le sens « normal » d'école, peut-être un nom propre à moins qu'il ne s'agisse d'une origine celtique.

En francoprovençal, le nom de la commune s'écrit Ekoule, selon la graphie de Conflans.

Un des faits les plus marquants de l'histoire d’École est le martyre qu'il a subi le 6 juillet 1944. Les nazis ont regroupé puis fusillé les hommes de plus de 16 ans qu'ils ont pu capturer, puis incendié le village. Le maire de l'époque, Jean-Benoit Ballaz âgé de 72 ans, fit partie des victimes.

Un monument sur l'ancienne place du village, devant l'église, rappelle ce martyre8.

La Boulangerie savoyarde, fondée en 1976, et rachetée par le groupe SATORIZ.

La Menuiserie Alp' 56 est spécialiste des fenêtres.

• Michèle Brocard, Lucien Lagier-Bruno, André Palluel-Guillard, Histoire des communes savoyardes : Aix-les-Bains et ses environs - Les Bauges - La Chartreuse - La Combe de Savoie - Montmélian (vol. 2), Roanne, Éditions Horvath, 1984, 463 p. (ISBN 978-2-7171-0310-6), p. 134-137. ([PDF] lire en ligne [archive])
• Laurent Morand, Les Bauges : histoire et documents : Peuple et Clergé (III^e volume), Chambéry, Imprimerie savoisienne, 1891, 684 p. (lire en ligne [archive]).

truita

Truita, tortilla, truites, tortillas

Truita f.
Peix de la família dels salmònids, de l'espècie Salmo fario, que habita en els rius i llacs de muntanya, es fa de 15 fins a 40 cm. de llarg i és comestible i molt saborós (pir-or., or., occ.); cast. trucha. Si li trobats truytes e esturió e altres viandes delicades, lexats-lo defora, Eximplis, i, 276.
    Refr.
—«La truita, per esser bona, ha de tenir quatre efes: franca, fresca, fregida i del Freser»: es diu perquè les truites que es crien en el riu Freser tenen molta fama de saboroses.
    Fon.: tɾúјtə (pir-or., or.); tɾúјta (Vall d'Àneu, Pobla de S.); tɾúјtɛ (Sort, Tremp, Urgell, Ll.).
    Var. form.: troita (aquesta forma apareix com formant part d'un topònim, el riu de les Troytes, en Jaume I Cròn. 183).
    Intens.:—a) Augm.: truitassa.—b) Dim.: truiteta.—c) Pejor.: truitota.
    Etim.: del llatí tardà tructa, mat. sign.

2. TRUITA f.
|| 1. Ou o ous debatuts fregits a la paella i formant una massa circular o oblonga

 cast. tortilla.

Dinaren-se de pa e de vi e de truyta e d'ous,Desclot Cròn., c. 5. Un ou en truyta, Spill 8157. Fes una truyta que sia ben cuyta,Robert Coch 20. Sopa d'una truyta amb jonquillo, Aguiló Poes. 166.
|| 2. El sol que en sortir apareix esgrogueït, pàl·lid, cosa que es considera senyal de mal temps (St. Pol de Mar).
|| 3. Bunyol, cosa mal feta, que ha sortit malament (Vallès); cast. pifia.
|| 4. Embull, embolic (Forcall); cast. lío.
|| 5. Desorde, conjunt de coses confuses (Mall.). La mare se'n va, i al punt, quina truital, Caimari Edif. 53.
    Loc.—a) Fer truita: no anar a escola (Eiv.); cast. hacer novillos.—b) Fer-se una truita: esclafar-se per efecte d'un gran cop, topada o caiguda.—c) Girar la truita: vendre doble partida de la que es té comprada o comprar doble de la que s'havia venut, quan el canvi de valors oscil·la contràriament al que un desitja o esperava (Barc.). Forçar la baixa dels Vilanius i, un cop sota la par, girar la truita, Oller Febre, ii,297.—d) Girar-se la truita: canviar radicalment una situació política, enconòmica, etc. No és excessiu pensar que hauria donat tot un cop d'Estat, girant d'una vegada la truita, Vidal Mirall 44. Des d'aquell dia se va girar la truita: tothom tornà a fer-li jochs y festes, Penya Mos. iii, 18.—e) Somiar truites: somiar coses que un desitja però que són impossibles d'obtenir.
    Refr.
—«Qui té fam, somia truites»: vol dir que el qui necessita o desitja una cosa, sol veure possible d'obtenir-la encara que no ho sigui.
    Fon.: tɾúјtə (or., bal.); tɾúјtɛ, tɾúјta (occ., val.).
Intens.:—a) Augm.: truitassa, truitarra.—b) Dim.: truiteta, truitetxa, truitel·la, truitona, truitoia.—c) Pejor.: truitota, truitot.
    Etim.: incerta, però sembla possible que vingui del llatí torta, ‘coca’, amb metàtesi *trota o *trotta, potser amb influència del nom de peix tructa que en català ha donat truita homònim de la truita ‘fritada d'ous’.

Language Misconceived: Arguing for Applied Cognitive Sociolinguistics

En "Language Misconceived: Arguing for Applied Cognitive Sociolinguistics" de Karol Janicki hacen referencia al conflicto de las lenguas catalana y valenciana. Además, se destaca que no existe ninguna demostración que sirva para decir que el valenciano es un dialecto catalán.

https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/SS/article/download/28912/27242

Editor: Routledge (11 May 2006) (1600) ASIN: B013J9QH9Q

 

Language and conflict – Selected issues
Karol Janicki (2015)
London and New York: Palgrave and Macmillan. Pp. xiii + 228.
ISBN 978-1-137-38140-8

Reviewed by Beatriz Christino

Professor at the Department of Foreign Languages of the University of Bergen (Norway), where he has developed the research project ‘The language of peace and non-aggression’, author of Language misconceived – Arguing for applied cognitive sociolinguistics (2006) and Confusing discourse (2010), Karol Janicki  has produced an admirable work with his new book, Language and conflict – Selected issues (2015). Being a well-founded analysis also accessible to the general public (as well as undergraduate students), this volume tackles a central question of linguistic fields like pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and applied linguistics, addressing almost everyone’s experience: ‘What roles do language and communication play in conflicts?’ (p. x).

Defined by its author as devoted to ‘micro questions’ such as ‘how the use of certain words or grammatical constructions may allow us to manipulate people, how it may arouse emotions, or how it may lead to unintended confrontation’ (p. 5, italics as in the original), the book assumes an enlightening perspective of inquiry on language use. Furthermore, it establishes a dialogue not only with works written by influential linguists (e.g., Lakoff, Fillmore, and Hymes), but also with those produced by other scientists such as Leonard Mlodinow and those belonging to a long philosophical tradition, discussing positions of, among others, Plato, Spinoza, Locke, Schopenhauer, and Voltaire.

Its structure is, to a significant degree, responsible for this combination of a work most worthy of respect and a useful guide for whoever is interested in avoiding conflicts by enhancing his/her own linguistic awareness. Each of the volume’s eight chapters contains a real story (most of them experienced by the author himself) that works as a meaningful and tangible illustration of the key concepts, followed by a section entitled ‘Summary and practical advice’.

Readers searching for more information about specific issues can count on the ‘Suggestions for further reading’ which close each chapter. In addition to that, a two-page glossary (pp. 203–204) clarifies the terminology that may appear challenging to non-specialists.

The first chapter deals with the widespread misconception that words and their referents in the real world have a ‘natural’ connection. As the author demonstrates, it is crucial not to forget that ‘words activate concepts in the mind’ (p. 16) and that this operation inevitably leads to a different result for each individual since personal experiences diverge. Particularly evident in the very common borderline of non-typical cases and fuzzy situations – which encompass highly abstract concepts – this complex process receives attention throughout this book.

In fact, a main idea of this chapter (recurrently reaffirmed and complemented in the following ones) is that ‘When we differ and are not aware of it, things may easily go wrong. When we differ and are aware of it, and possibly discuss the differences, we are less likely to get involved in conflict’ (p. 16).

Describing more precisely the activation of concepts in the human mind corresponds to the topic of the second chapter. It shows us that ‘words evoke whole scenarios’ (p. 32) and explains that alternative framing makes us imagine and talk about the same thing in different ways. Furthermore, it characterizes various kinds of framing processes: for example, through metaphors such as categorization and binary opposition. The last one, centered on the contrast us vs. them (the enemy), often takes place in the political domain, being particularly conducive to conflict. 

As far as framing effects are concerned, the author informs us that negation cannot suppress the images evoked by words (something which structures like ‘Don’t think about an elephant!’ confirm) and that hypothetical constructions, as well as questions, are indicative of frames. As the author warns us, many journalists and politicians adopt questions as a strategy to induce their interlocutors to the framing of a specific situation. Considering texts published in daily newspapers and magazines, Janicki exposes ‘the use of framing to instigate or perpetuate conflict in the public sphere’ (p. 36). Appropriately, this chapter includes the section ‘Framing for conflict – framing for peace’ .

The role of emotions in arising, sustaining, and worsening conflicts constitutes the subject of the third chapter. In order to develop this discussion, Janicki takes into account recent work in cognitive neuroscience, which yields a new understanding about the nature of emotions and their relation with our linguistic behavior and our judgements. He asserts that emotions, as a neurophysiological phenomenon, control our lives to a significant measure.

Also based on works in psychology, the author indicates that we react faster to negative stimuli, including negative words. Linking this chapter to the previous one, he observes that ‘when a situation is framed in terms of words evoking strong emotions, the framing effects may be twice as strong as when relatively emotion-neutral words are used’ (p. 64, italics as in the original). Thus, delaying our emotional reaction to words, even though particularly hard, becomes undoubtedly rewarding: this component of emotional intelligence assumes a preeminent role in preventing conflict, as Janicki highlights. Investigating how emotions interact with discourses that tend to provoke conflicts, the author mentions the relevance of the distinction between typical and non-typical insults. Furthermore, he devotes an entire section to scrutinizing hate speech and focusing on the impossibility of reaching an ultimate definition of it.

The fourth chapter, ‘Descriptions, inferences and evaluations – Different levels of abstraction and conflict’, alerts us to the fact that even descriptions (in spite of their ‘more concrete’ nature) may differ from speaker to speaker, due to the intricate relations between perception, memory, and language. Concerning inferences, we are reminded that those differences are ‘almost limitless’, representing a constant source of disagreement. 

Janicki characterizes the processes involved in establishing inferences, such as the ‘illusion of cause’ (the tendency not only to associate two events, but also to identify one of them as the cause and the other one as its consequence). According to him, in particular the inferences pointing to a single reason might generate conflicts. In fact, Janicki shows that a strategy to escape from conflict is to distinguish clearly between descriptions, inferences, and evaluations. Even more abstract than inferences, the last ones might be especially dangerous for peaceful coexistence. Above all, we should be careful with evaluations containing the verb to be in their structure (e.g. He is arrogant, she is intelligent), since, as the author advises us, they create an illusion of stability and certainty in an unstable and constantly changing world. In this chapter, Janicki also discusses how highly abstract words can work as tools for conflict, on the one hand, or for peace, on the other.

Facing a major issue of our days, the fifth chapter discusses ‘Euphemisms, dysphemisms and political correctness’ and bears the quite suggestive subtitle ‘How we can get misdirected’. Janicki starts with a brief history of political correctness (henceforth PC), while the second section of this chapter presents various definitions for this concept, none of them ‘correct in some absolute sense’ (p. 109). Intrinsically connected with issues of language and conflict, PC encompasses the search for ways of speaking that promote social justice, as Janicki clarifies. With the intention to achieve an accurate picture of such a polemic topic, the author contrasts the arguments and the discursive strategies of the PC defenders and those of its opponents. Moreover, he provides us with a sample of expressions coined to replace the traditional ones, considered to be denigrating (e.g. ‘sanitation worker’ instead of ‘garbage man’) and reserves a section of the book to examine sexist language. Janicki views PC expressions as linked to shifts in the process of framing, thus arguing that their use may be conducive to changes in attitudes and prevent conflict. Analogously, he recommends abandoning words and expressions that reinforce stereotypes. Regarding euphemisms and dysphemisms, whose ‘use goes back to the beginnings of recorded history’ (p. 123), Janicki gives special attention to the adoption of euphemisms as a strategy of deception and/or manipulation. In his view, this procedure comes up frequently in the language of politics, which expressions such as ‘collateral damage’ (referring to people injured or killed during a military operation) or ‘enhanced investigation’ (instead of the clear-cut ‘torture’) make evident.
 Undoubtedly, there are differences in the way people handle the situations of everyday life from the linguistic point of view. Exploring the nature of these differences, as well as the conflicts that they may cause, corresponds to the aim of the sixth chapter – ‘Communicative competence – how we may misinterpret other people’s linguistic behaviour’. As Janicki demonstrates, the concept of appropriateness – which depends on sociolinguistic rules – assumes particular relevance in this context. He informs us that these rules function as regulative guidelines and do not present any trace of a categorical nature. By consequence, there is a considerable range of variation and unpredictability in (socio)linguistic behaviour.

The author displays the rules governing our communicative competence in a continuum, with extremes occupied by idiosyncratic and semi-categorical rules.
Additionally, the author reveals that our lack of awareness of how our own communicative rules differ from those of our interlocutors gives rise to a multitude of misunderstandings and conflict situations. Another problematic feature that contributes to disagreements and unfriendly interactions is our incapacity to relativize: we tend to perceive our own way to behave linguistically as ‘the’ way to behave. This propensity is perfectly described by Janicki, who also delineates the relations between communicative competence and non-verbal behavior in a specific section, while considering the relations between communicative competence and inferences in another one.

The seventh chapter enables us to understand the frequent emergence of conflicts associated with the meaning of linguistic units. Most coherently, Janicki’s first step here coincides with the application of a principle formulated in the first chapter – not mixing words and things. Therefore, he is in no way playing with words when he states that ‘the word “meaning”, like any other word, has no ultimate meaning in itself. It only means something to us language users’ (p. 154, italics as in the original). In his effort to unveil which senses ‘meaning’ may have to us, Janicki differentiates the classical and the prototypical approaches to meaning. Evidently he rejects the former, since it postulates the meaning of a word as intrinsic to the linguistic unit itself, in a process that completely excludes the individual language user. He advises us that those who believe ‘in the one correct meaning of a word, […] tend to be dogmatic, inflexible, self-righteous, complacent and cantankerous’ (p. 161). On the contrary, the conscious option to conceive meaning in the prototypical way provides us with much more tolerance and flexibility, decreasing considerably the occurrence of conflict situations. In this chapter, Janicki considers also incomprehensible language, determining various reasons that lead speakers to produce unintelligible messages and emphasizing the deliberate use of intricate texts as a manipulative strategy. Moreover, the author clarifies that the attribution of meaning definitely represents a matter of power, given that ‘[t]he people who have power define what words mean’ (p. 171).

Throughout the book, Janicki proves that language use often causes and/or worsens conflicts. In the eighth chapter, he indicates how education could help to reverse this state of affairs. Since ‘beliefs rule our perception’ (p. 179) and our strongest beliefs accompany us from our childhood, the author states that education for peaceful coexistence, oriented by ‘peace linguistics’ (a concept characterized on pp. 187–188), should start during the very first years of schooling.
Going further, he verifies the considerable distance between this ideal and the reality of the educational systems in different countries (the United States, England, Scotland, Australia, Norway, and Poland), evaluating the role linguistics plays in each of them. As a result, he recognizes the need for a significant change, pointing out that ‘[w]e may assume that an awareness of linguistic phenomena other than variation will contribute to still further reduction of social friction’ and concluding that ‘linguistics deserves a place in the K-12 educational system’ (p. 185). He also stresses the linguists’ responsibility in enabling this transformation by establishing a fruitful dialogue with society.

In the concluding chapter, Janicki reinforces his refusal of dogmatism, affirming that his work ‘promotes one view of language and conflict’ and assuring that other perspectives, guided by different philosophical, theoretical, and methodological orientations, ‘could also be seen […] as valid and useful’ (p. 199)
Even though Janicki’s Language and conflict, due to its instructive approach, is especially recommendable as an introductory text for students in linguistics and communication, also scholars of linguistics and nonspecialists will certainly find it a valuable reading. Its attentive consideration of significant aspects involving language use and the appearance/avoidance of conflicts makes this work really compelling and thought-provoking.

(Received 21st October 2015; accepted 23rd October 2015)